In What Ways Are We Represented in our Representative Democracy?

Direct Democracy Versus Representative Democracy

Democracy is a system of government in which the people are sovereign. In other words, the fundamental essence of a democracy is rule by the people. A democratic government operates with the consent of the governed based on the popular will.

There are two main types of democracy at work in the United States: Direct Democracy and Representative Democracy.

Direct Democracy

• In a direct democracy, the people make decisions about actual policy and laws
• Direct democracy may be employed at a state or local level, but not at the national (federal) level of government in the United States
• For example, citizens might vote on:
  • a local school budget in a municipal referendum 
  • a statewide policy on drug legalization or reproductive health care access

Representative Democracy (Republic)

• In a representative democracy, the people elect leaders to create policy and laws
• Representative Democracy functions at the national (federal), state, and local levels of government in the United States
• For example, citizens might vote for:
  • a city mayor
  • a state governor
  • a U.S. congressman

Both models are based on the will of the people expressed through their cast ballots. The difference between a direct democracy and a representative democracy comes down to who creates the laws by which we are governed. 

• In a direct democracy, the people themselves vote on these laws, whereas in a representative democracy, the people vote on leaders who will create these laws
• Voters consent to policies (“the what”)  in a direct democracy and consent to leadership (“the who”) in a representative democracy

Nearly every state offers some form of direct democracy through legislative referral or referendum.¹ While citizens have more influence in a direct democracy, this type of democracy would not be feasible to enact at the national level. To list just a few considerations, it would be enormously challenging to:

• sustain constant participation by the electorate;
• continually educate voters about complex or specialized topics;
• facilitate a robust national debate about different viewpoints or considerations;
• administer frequent referenda/initiatives; 
• respond quickly in times of emergency; and
• balance state representation in a federal manner prescribed in the U.S. Constitution.

How Representatives Represent

At the national level, the United States employs a model of representative democracy. That is to say that the United States is a republic without options for direct democracy at the federal (national) level. In Federalist No. 10, James Madison asserted that a purpose of a representative democracy is to “refine and enlarge the public views” through representatives “whose wisdom may best discern the true interests of the nation…”

As a republic, Americans put our trust in leaders we elect to represent us as they make, implement and enforce laws. But what exactly does “representation” mean? In what manner do our federal elected officials such as U.S. Congressmen, U.S. Senators, and the President represent us? Is it fair to expect leaders we elect to take the positions we want? Is it ethical for leaders to vote against our stated interests?

Political scientists have identified four main models of representation employed by elected leaders in a republic.²  

• Delegates - elected officials who act based on their constituents’ wishes 
• Trustees - elected officials who act based on what they believe is in their constituents’ and the nation’s best interests 
• Politicos - elected officials who act mainly as trustees but also as delegates if their constituents express strong positions
• Partisans - elected officials who act based on their political parties positions

In our republic, elected leaders might exercise these types of representation in different scenarios. It would be nearly impossible for them to be pure delegates when they represent a plethora of constituents with a wide range of positions on a multitude of issues. While they may enter office with the intention of becoming trustees or politicos, many will be faced with pressure to conduct themselves as partisans to operate effectively and maintain power. Indeed today congressmen frequently vote party line and are increasingly more polarized than they have been in decades.³

The Partisan Problem of Moral Hazard

Elected representatives are incentivized to become partisans for many reasons. 

• Party loyalty is often rewarded with coveted committee assignments and generous campaign donations
• As a quid pro quo, some leaders will support a partisan ally’s bill with an expectation of reciprocation - a process political scientists call logrolling
• Partisan grandstanding can increase media attention, public followers, and political stature

While these factional incentives may be lucrative, representatives run the risk of straying from the expectation that they will represent their constituents as delegates, trustees, or politicos. At our nation’s founding, James Madison warned about the inevitable dangers of factions in Federalist No. 10 and was intent on designing a constitutional order to mitigate their effects.

The framers of the U.S. Constitution set two year terms for congressmen to keep them accountable to their home districts while affording them the opportunity to focus on the nation’s best interests. In Federalist No. 53, Publius (Alexander Hamilton or James Madison) concluded by stating “biennial elections will be as useful to the affairs of the public as we have seen that they will be safe to the liberty of the people.” With the House of Representatives holding power over taxation, the framers were committed to keeping congressmen connected to constituents through frequent elections.

Between elections in a representative democracy, Americans may face a problem of moral hazard if elected leaders act in bad faith or violate their implicit social contract with the body politic. If voters feel that elected leaders are not adequately representative, how can these elected officials be held to account when an election is not around the corner? Check back for answers in our next installment of US Vote’s Civics Crash Course.

¹ National Conference of State Legislatures. “Initiative and Referendum Processes.” NCSL, last updated September 23, 2024. https://www.ncsl.org/elections-and-campaigns/initiative-and-referendum-processes
² “Models of Representation,” USGOPO.com, accessed April 21, 2025, https://www.usgopo.com/models-of-representation/
³ DeSilver, Drew. "The Polarization in Today’s Congress Has Roots That Go Back Decades." Pew Research Center. March 10, 2022. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/03/10/the-polarization-in-todays-congress-has-roots-that-go-back-decades/